QCE Physics Syllabus Guide (Sciences)

Kinetic particle model and specific heat capacity

• Describe the kinetic particle model of matter.
• Describe the concepts of thermal energy, temperature, kinetic energy, heat and internal energy.
• Explain heat transfers in terms of conduction, convection and radiation.
• Use T_K = T_C + 273 to convert temperature measurements.
• Explain that a change in temperature is due to the addition or removal of energy from a system (without phase change).
• Describe the concept of specific heat capacity.
• Solve problems involving specific heat capacity using Q = mcΔT (using but not limited to c_i = 2.05 × 10³ J kg⁻¹ K⁻¹, c_s = 2.00 × 10³ J kg⁻¹ K⁻¹ and c_w = 4.18 × 10³ J kg⁻¹ K⁻¹).
• Interpret data from specific heat capacity experiments.

Phase changes and energy conservation

• Explain, in terms of the internal energy of a system and the kinetic particle model of matter, why the temperature of a system remains the same during the process of state change.
• Describe the concept of specific latent heat.
• Solve problems involving specific latent heat using Q = mL.
• Describe the concept of thermal equilibrium in terms of the temperature and average kinetic energy of the particles in each of the systems.
• Explain the process in which thermal energy is transferred between two systems until thermal equilibrium is achieved, and recognise the relevance of this to the laws of thermodynamics.
• Solve problems involving specific heat capacity, specific latent heat and thermal equilibrium.
• Explain how a system with thermal energy has the capacity to do mechanical work.
• Explain that the change in the internal energy of a system is equal to the energy added or removed by heating plus the work done on or by the system, and recognise this as the first law of thermodynamics and that this is a consequence of the law of conservation of energy.
• Explain how energy transfers and transformations in mechanical systems always result in some heat loss to the environment, so that the amount of useable energy is reduced.
• Describe the concept of efficiency.
• Solve problems involving the efficiency of heat transfers using ΔU = Q + W and η = (energy output / energy input) × 100/1 %.

Science as a Human Endeavour (SHE)

• Recognise that the science of heating processes is of key importance to the development of efficient and cost-effective technologies that use sustainable and renewable energy sources.
• Explore the development of new technologies and understandings of heating processes as a means to predicting global temperatures and the effects of human-induced climate change.
• Explore how the need for increases to the efficiency of early steam engines led to further technological advancements (e.g. the internal combustion engine) and scientific advancements (e.g. an understanding of, and mathematical articulation of, the relationship between heating processes and mechanical work).
• Appreciate that different temperature scales (e.g. Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin) were developed at different times to serve different purposes.

Science inquiry

• Investigate: Consider the significance of using common units of measurement internationally.
• Investigate: Investigate the precision and accuracy of different temperature measuring devices, such as analogue and digital thermometers, by determining measurement uncertainty.
• Investigate: Use digital and other measuring devices to collect data, ensuring measurements are recorded using the correct symbol, SI unit, number of significant figures and associated measurement uncertainty (absolute and percentage); all experimental measurements should be recorded in this way.
• Investigate: Consider the energy contained within a cup of coffee versus a swimming pool.
• Investigate: Explore the properties of water that makes it ideal for use as a coolant in car engines.
• Investigate: Consider why you feel colder when you are wearing wet clothes.
• Investigate: Investigate the proportional relationship between heat and temperature change.
• Investigate: Investigate specific heat capacity of a substance.
• Investigate: Explore why it is possible to boil water in a paper cup on a campfire.
• Investigate: Explore the implications on availability of useable energy in the future if useable energy is reduced every time an energy transfer occurs.
• Investigate: Investigate percentage error by comparing the theoretical and measured temperatures of a mixture of two liquids.

Nuclear model and stability

• Describe the nuclear model of the atom characterised by a small nucleus surrounded by electrons.
• Describe nuclides using ᴬₓX nomenclature.
• Explain why protons in the nucleus repel each other.
• Describe the concept of the strong nuclear force.
• Explain the stability of a nuclide in terms of the operation of the strong nuclear force over very short distances, electrostatic repulsion, and the relative number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
• Explain natural radioactive decay in terms of stability.
• Describe alpha, beta positive, beta negative and gamma radiation, including the properties of penetrating ability, charge, mass and ionisation ability.
• Explain how an excess of mass, protons, or neutrons in a nucleus can result in alpha, beta positive and beta negative decay.
• Solve problems involving balancing nuclear equations.
• Describe spontaneous alpha, beta positive and beta negative decay using decay equations.
• Explain how a radionuclide will, through a series of spontaneous decays, become a stable nuclide.
• Describe the concept of half-life.
• Solve radioactive decay problems using N = N_o(1/2)^n and other arithmetic or graphical methods.

Energy and mass defect

• Describe energy in terms of electron volts (eV) and joules (J).
• Describe the concept of artificial transmutation.
• Describe nuclear fission and nuclear fusion with the aid of nuclear equations.
• Distinguish between artificial transmutations and natural radioactive decay.
• Explain a neutron-induced nuclear fission reaction, including references to extra neutrons produced from many of these reactions.
• Explain a fission chain reaction.
• Describe the concepts of mass defect, binding energy and binding energy per nucleon.
• Describe the mass–energy equivalence relationship.
• Solve problems involving the mass–energy equivalence relationship using ΔE = Δmc².
• Explain that more energy is released per nucleon in nuclear fusion than in nuclear fission because a greater percentage of the mass is transformed into energy.

Science as a Human Endeavour (SHE)

• Appreciate the significant contributions of scientists such as Marie Curie, Irene Joliot-Curie, Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn who furthered our understanding of radiation and nuclear stability.
• Appreciate that the development of models of the atom often required a wide range of evidence from multiple individuals and across disciplines.
• Explore advances in medical treatment and imaging that have come from a deepening understanding of the properties of nuclear radiation.
• Consider how scientific knowledge can be used to predict beneficial and/or harmful or unintended consequences, e.g. choosing appropriate radioisotopes for medical imaging, carefully storing nuclear waste.
• Consider how an understanding of radioactive decay can enable scientists to make reliable predictions in radiometric dating of materials.
• Consider the health and environmental risks associated with the use of nuclear fission along with the environmental and cost benefits of lowering fossil fuel consumption.
• Appreciate that energy production in stars was attributed to gravity until the knowledge of nuclear reactions led to the understanding that energy production in stars is due to nuclear fusion.

Science inquiry

• Investigate: Consider whether nuclear fission-based power production could replace fossil fuel-based generation in Australia.
• Investigate: Investigate nuclear safety, considering the suitability of using the sources of information in terms of their credibility.
• Investigate: Examine exponential decay graphs and use these graphs to estimate half-lives.
• Investigate: Investigate shielding effects and/or the relationship between intensity and distance from a radioactive source.

Current, potential difference and energy flow

• Describe electric charge as positive or negative.
• Describe electric current as carried by discrete electric charge carriers.
• Describe the law of conservation of electric charge.
• Explain that electric charge is conserved at all points in an electrical circuit.
• Describe the concepts of electrical potential difference and power within a circuit.
• Solve problems involving electric current, electric charge and time using I = q/t.
• Explain that the energy inputs in a circuit equal the sum of energy output from loads in the circuit.
• Explain that the energy available to electric charges moving in an electrical circuit is measured using electrical potential difference.
• Solve problems involving electrical potential difference using V = W/q.
• Explain in qualitative terms why electric charge separation produces an electrical potential difference.
• Solve problems involving power using P = W/t.
• Describe the concept of resistance.
• Solve problems using V = IR.
• Discuss the differences between ohmic and non-ohmic resistors.
• Interpret experimental data to determine the resistance across an ohmic resistor.

Circuit analysis and design

• Describe the concept of power dissipation over resistors in a circuit.
• Construct electrical circuit diagrams using the following symbols (resistor, voltmeter, ammeter, cell, battery, switch, globe).
• Solve problems involving electrical potential difference, electric current, resistance and power.
• Describe series and parallel connections of components in electrical circuits.
• Solve problems involving finding equivalent resistance, electrical potential difference and electric currents in series and parallel circuits using P = VI, P = I²R, V_t = V_1 + V_2 + … V_n, R_t = R_1 + R_2 + … R_n, I_t = I_1 + I_2 + … I_n, 1/R_t = 1/R_1 + 1/R_2 + … 1/R_n.
• Describe simple series, parallel and series/parallel circuits.

Science as a Human Endeavour (SHE)

• Appreciate the significant contributions of scientists such as Gustav Kirchhoff, Georg Ohm, Hertha Ayrton and Florence Violet McKenzie who furthered our understanding of electrical currents.
• Appreciate how international conventions enable clear communication of ideas and findings across the globe, e.g. conventional current.
• Explore the impacts of increased use of household electrical devices during extreme weather, e.g. heat in Australian summers or cold in European winters.
• Appreciate how developing new household electrical devices to improve the efficiency of existing devices and ensure consistency of electrical standards requires international cooperation between scientists, engineers and manufacturers.
• Consider the impacts of computers, smartphones and the internet on society and their reliance on a stable supply of electricity.
• Explore the concerns about sustainable energy usage and global warming that have led to international research and development to improve the energy efficiency of electric lighting.

Science inquiry

• Investigate: Compare characteristics of ohmic and non-ohmic resistors experimentally.
• Investigate: Interpret graphical representations of electrical potential difference versus electric current data to find resistance using the gradient and its uncertainty.
• Investigate: Investigate series and parallel circuits.
• Investigate: Investigate simple circuits for specific 'real-life' purposes.

Linear motion

• Contrast vectors and scalars, and use these terms to categorise physical quantities, e.g. velocity and speed.
• Symbolise vectors graphically and algebraically, e.g. F, F⃗ and F̅.
• Calculate resultant vectors through the addition and subtraction of two vectors in one dimension.
• Describe the concepts of displacement, velocity and acceleration.
• Compare instantaneous and average velocity.
• Interpret linear motion graphs to describe the motion of an object, referring to the intercepts, gradients and uncertainties (using minimum and maximum lines of best fit) of displacement–time and velocity–time graphs.
• Interpret linear motion graphs to describe the motion of an object, referring to the areas under velocity–time and acceleration–time graphs using simple geometry.
• Solve problems relating to uniformly accelerated motion in one dimension using v = u + at, s = ut + 1/2 at² and v² = u² + 2as.
• Interpret experimental data to determine the value of acceleration due to gravity on the Earth's surface.

Classical mechanics

• Describe the three laws of motion of classical mechanics and give examples of each.
• Identify forces acting on an object.
• Construct free-body diagrams representing forces such as the force due to gravity (weight), the normal force, tension, friction, drag and applied forces acting on an object.
• Determine the resultant force acting on an object in one dimension.
• Solve problems using the laws of classical mechanics and a = F_net/m.
• Describe the concepts of momentum and impulse.
• Describe the principle of conservation of momentum.
• Solve problems involving momentum, impulse, the conservation of momentum and collisions in one dimension using p = mv and ∑mv_before = ∑mv_after.
• Analyse the area under a force–time graph using geometric methods.

Energy

• Describe the concepts of mechanical work, kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy.
• Solve problems involving work done by a force using W = ΔE and W = Fs.
• Solve problems involving kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy using E_k = 1/2 mv² and ΔE_p = mgΔh.
• Analyse the area under a force–displacement graph using geometric methods.
• Interpret energy–time graphs.
• Discuss the differences between elastic and inelastic collisions.
• Solve problems involving elastic collisions and inelastic collisions (including explosions) using ∑mv_before = ∑mv_after.

Science as a Human Endeavour (SHE)

• Appreciate the significant contributions of scientists such as Isaac Newton and Émilie du Châtelet.
• Explore historical models and theories used to describe motion and force, and how evidence was used to build upon and improve on earlier understandings.
• Consider how knowledge of forces and motion has led to improvements in car safety through the development of technologies such as seatbelts, crumple zones and airbags.
• Understand the study of biomechanics applies the laws of forces and motion, and through direct measurement, computer simulation and mathematical modelling lead to a better understanding of human movement and improved athletic performance.
• Appreciate that the laws of motion proposed by Isaac Newton provided an explanation for a range of previously unexplained physical phenomena, which were confirmed by multiple experiments performed by a multitude of scientists.

Science inquiry

• Investigate: Explore the variations in final position of a person who walks 100 m.
• Investigate: Consider the fable of the tortoise and the hare, and how the slow-moving tortoise was able to beat the faster hare.
• Investigate: Explore the role physics plays in improving the performance of elite athletes.
• Investigate: Investigate situations that involve displacement–time and velocity–time graphs.
• Investigate: Use vertical error bars when plotting data to determine the uncertainty of the gradient and intercepts using minimum and maximum lines of best fit.
• Investigate: Investigate a linear elastic collision between two objects.
• Investigate: Linearise a dataset that suggests a non-linear relationship (e.g. t² versus s) and calculate the equation of the linear trend line.

Wave properties

• Describe the transfer of energy through waves.
• Describe the concept of mechanical waves.
• Compare transverse waves and longitudinal waves.
• Describe examples of transverse and longitudinal waves, such as sound, seismic waves and vibrations of stringed instruments.
• Describe the concepts of compression, rarefaction, crest, trough, displacement, amplitude, period, frequency, wavelength and velocity and identify them on graphical and visual representations of a wave.
• Analyse the amplitude, period, frequency and wavelength from graphs of transverse and longitudinal waves.
• Solve problems involving the period, frequency, wavelength, and velocity of a wave using v = fλ and f = 1/T and using but not limited to v_s = 346 m s⁻¹.
• Describe the concepts of reflection, refraction, diffraction and superposition.
• Explain phenomena related to reflection and refraction using the wave model of light.
• Describe the reflection and refraction of a wave at a boundary between two media.
• Explain constructive interference and destructive interference of two simple waves.
• Determine the resultant amplitude of two simple waves interacting using the principle of superposition.
• Explain the formation of standing waves in terms of superposition with reference to constructive and destructive interference, and nodes and antinodes.

Sound

• Describe the concepts of fundamental (or first) harmonic and natural frequency.
• Solve problems involving standing wave formation in pipes open at both ends, closed at one end, and on stretched strings using L = nλ/2 and L = (2n − 1)λ/4.
• Describe the concept of resonance in a mechanical system.
• Identify that energy is transferred efficiently in resonating systems.

Light

• Compare light to a mechanical wave.
• Explain the concepts of reflection, refraction, total internal reflection, dispersion, diffraction and interference in relation to the wave model of light.
• Describe polarisation using a transverse wave model.
• Construct ray diagrams to demonstrate the reflection and refraction of light.
• Solve problems involving the reflection of light on single plane mirrors and refraction of light through a single convex or concave lens using ray diagrams to identify the location, orientation and size of an image.
• Describe the concept of Snell's Law.
• Solve problems involving the refraction of light at the boundary between two mediums using sin i / sin r = v_1/v_2 = λ_1/λ_2 = n_2/n_1.
• Contrast the speed of light and the speed of mechanical waves.
• Describe the concept of intensity and its proportionality to the square of the amplitude.
• Solve problems involving the proportional relationship between intensity of light and the inverse-square of the distance from the source using I ∝ 1/r².
• Determine the refractive index of a transparent substance from experimental data.

Science as a Human Endeavour (SHE)

• Appreciate the significant contributions of scientists such as Laura Bassi, Willebrord Snellius, Albert A Michelson and Edward W Morley.
• Appreciate the role of experiments in furthering our understanding of light and its wave-like behaviour.
• Consider the importance of wave properties in experiments such as those performed by Michelson and Morley to demonstrate light waves travel through a vacuum and not the luminiferous aether as was believed at the time.
• Appreciate that knowledge of different types of waves, and their motion through the ocean and the continents, allows prediction of the possible extent of damage or the timing of a tsunami.
• Consider how acoustical engineering can reduce noise pollution by planning structures that absorb sound waves or that do not reflect and amplify sound in an unwanted way.

Science inquiry

• Investigate: Consider the apparent position of objects under water in relation to observations made through different media.
• Investigate: Investigate the behaviour of both longitudinal waves and transverse waves on springs in relation to reflection from fixed and free ends and transmission/reflection at a medium boundary.
• Investigate: Investigate fundamental and harmonic wavelengths in pipes.
• Investigate: Investigate the speed of sound in air at a specific temperature.
• Investigate: Investigate the law of reflection.
• Investigate: Investigate the refractive properties of different substances.

Projectile motion

• Apply vector analysis to resolve a vector into two perpendicular components.
• Solve vector problems by resolving vectors into components, adding or subtracting the components and recombining them to determine the resultant vector.
• Describe how horizontal and vertical components of a velocity vector are independent of each other.
• Solve problems involving projectile motion in the absence of drag effects using v_y = u_y + gt, s_y = u_y t + 1/2 gt², v_y² = u_y² + 2gs_y, v_x = u_x and s_x = u_x t.
• Interpret data relating to the horizontal distance travelled by an object projected at various angles from the horizontal.

Inclined planes and circular motion

• Solve problems involving force due to gravity (weight) and mass using F_g = mg.
• Describe the concept of normal force.
• Describe the forces acting on an object on an inclined plane (e.g. force due to gravity, normal force, tension, frictional force and applied force) through the use of free-body diagrams.
• Determine the net force acting on an object on an inclined plane using vector analysis.
• Describe the concept of uniform circular motion.
• Describe the concepts of average speed and period.
• Solve problems involving objects undergoing uniform circular motion at a constant speed using v = 2πr/T and a_c = v²/r.
• Describe the concepts of centripetal acceleration and centripetal force.
• Solve problems involving forces acting on objects in uniform circular motion using F_c = F_net = mv²/r.

Orbital mechanics

• Describe the Law of Universal Gravitation.
• Solve problems involving the magnitude of the gravitational force between two masses using F = GMm/r².
• Describe the concept of gravitational fields.
• Solve problems involving the gravitational field strength at a distance from an object using g = F/m = GM/r².
• State the three laws of planetary motion.
• Describe the relationship between the Law of Universal Gravitation and uniform circular motion and recognise this as the third law of planetary motion.
• Solve problems involving the third law of planetary motion using T_a²/r_a³ = T_b²/r_b³ = 4π²/GM.

Science as a Human Endeavour (SHE)

• Appreciate the significant contributions of scientists such as Isaac Newton, Johannes Kepler, Émilie du Châtelet and Katherine Johnson who furthered our understanding of gravity and motion.
• Explore the role of forensic evidence used in court and the challenges associated with providing conclusive evidence that may lead to convictions.
• Appreciate how the accepted model of the solar system slowly shifted under the influence of carefully collected and analysed data.
• Explore the difficulties experienced by scientists who supported a heliocentric model of the solar system and the hindrances to the acceptance of their discoveries by society.
• Consider the international collaboration required to monitor the orbits of satellites, and the management of space debris.
• Consider the factors that contribute to positioning of satellites used for observation of weather, natural phenomena, traffic and military movements.
• Explore the international collaboration required in the discovery of gravity waves and associated technologies, e.g. Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO).

Science inquiry

• Investigate: Consider how an object can travel at a constant speed yet be accelerating.
• Investigate: Investigate the horizontal distance travelled by an object projected at various angles from the horizontal.
• Investigate: Investigate the parallel component of the weight of an object down an inclined plane at various angles.
• Investigate: Investigate the net forces acting on an object undergoing horizontal circular motion on a string.
• Investigate: Consider the difference between the heliocentric and geocentric models of the solar system.
• Investigate: Investigate the relationship between orbital radius and mass for orbiting objects using a simulation.

Electrostatics

• Describe Coulomb's Law.
• Solve problems using F = (1/4πε_o)(Qq/r²) = kQq/r².
• Describe the concepts of electric fields, electric field strength and electrical potential energy.
• Solve problems involving electric field strength using E = F/Q = (1/4πε_o)(q/r²) = kq/r².
• Solve problems involving the work done when an electric charge is moved in an electric field using V = ΔU/q.

Magnetic fields

• Describe the concept of a magnetic field.
• Sketch magnetic field lines due to a moving electric charge, electric currents and magnets.
• Describe the generation of a magnetic field from a moving electric charge.
• Solve problems involving the magnitude and direction of magnetic fields around a straight electric current-carrying wire and inside a solenoid using B = μ_o I/2πr and B = μ_o nI.
• Describe the force experienced by electric current-carrying conductors and moving electric charges when placed in a magnetic field.
• Solve problems involving the magnetic force on an electric current-carrying wire and moving charge in a magnetic field using F = BILsinθ and F = qvBsinθ.
• Interpret data relating to the force acting on a conductor in a magnetic field.
• Interpret data relating to the strength of a magnet at various distances.

Electromagnetic induction

• Describe the concepts of magnetic flux, magnetic flux density, electromagnetic induction, electromotive force (EMF), Faraday's Law and Lenz's Law.
• Solve problems involving the magnetic flux in an electric current-carrying loop using Φ = BAcosθ.
• Describe the process of inducing an EMF across a moving conductor in a magnetic field.
• Explain how Lenz's Law is consistent with the principle of conservation of energy.
• Explain how transformers work in terms of Faraday's Law and electromagnetic induction.
• Solve problems involving electromagnetic induction using emf = −NΔ(BA)/Δt, emf = −N ΔΦ/Δt, I_p V_p = I_s V_s and V_p/V_s = N_p/N_s.
• Describe the concept of an electromagnetic wave.
• Explain the relationship between oscillating electric charges and electromagnetic waves.

Science as a Human Endeavour (SHE)

• Appreciate the significant contributions of scientists such as Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, Michael Faraday, Emil Lenz, Mary Somerville and James Clerk Maxwell who furthered our understanding of electromagnetism.
• Explore how scientific knowledge has allowed the development of new methods for renewable energy production.
• Consider the scientific evidence concerning the risks of electromagnetic phenomena and associated technologies (e.g. wi-fi and mobile phones) as reported in the media.
• Explore the international collaboration involved in the development of the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) and the associated technologies to gather information that advances our knowledge of dark matter, dark energy, cosmic magnetism and general relativity.
• Consider the safety procedures developed for instruments that rely on strong magnetic fields (e.g. MRI and NMR machines).
• Explore the discoveries and theories that led to our current understanding of superconductivity.

Science inquiry

• Investigate: Investigate the force acting on a conductor in a magnetic field.
• Investigate: Investigate the strength of a magnet at various distances.
• Investigate: Investigate the effects of electrostatic charge on various materials, e.g. on trickling water.
• Investigate: Consider how electricity is made.
• Investigate: Investigate the induction of an electric current using a magnet and coil.
• Investigate: Investigate the induced EMF from an AC generator.

Special relativity

• Describe observations of natural phenomena that cannot be explained by classical physics, e.g. the presence of muons in the atmosphere and the momentum of high speed particles in particle accelerators.
• Describe the concepts of frame of reference and inertial frame of reference.
• State the two postulates of special relativity.
• Explain how motion can only be measured relative to an observer.
• Explain the concept of simultaneity.
• Describe the consequences of the constant speed of light in a vacuum, e.g. time dilation and length contraction.
• Describe the concepts of time dilation, proper time interval, relativistic time interval, length contraction, proper length, relativistic length, rest mass and relativistic momentum.
• Describe the phenomena of time dilation and length contraction, including examples of experimental evidence of the phenomena.
• State the mass–energy equivalence relationship.
• Solve problems involving time dilations, length contraction and relativistic momentum using t = t_o/√(1−v²/c²), L = L_o√(1−v²/c²), p_v = m_o v/√(1−v²/c²) and ΔE = Δmc².
• Explain the implications of relativistic momentum of objects increasing as they approach the speed of light.
• Explain paradoxical scenarios that may arise as a result of special relativity including the twins' paradox, flashlights on a train, and the ladder in the barn paradox.

Science as a Human Endeavour (SHE)

• Appreciate the significant contributions of scientists such as Albert Einstein and Amalie 'Emmy' Noether who furthered our understanding of relativity.
• Explore how special relativity built upon the work of previous scientists and led to the development of relativistic theories of gravitation, mass–energy equivalence and quantum field theory.
• Explore how technologies such as satellites have dramatically increased the size, accuracy, and geographic and temporal scope of datasets with which scientists work.
• Explore how technologies such as GPS and Ring laser gyroscopes (RLG) assist with accurate navigation and consider the ethics surrounding their use.
• Explore how special relativity leads to the idea of mass–energy equivalence, which has subsequently been applied in nuclear fission reactors.

Science inquiry

• Investigate: Consider whether information could be transmitted at speeds faster than the speed of light.
• Investigate: Consider the experimental evidence that supports the phenomena of time dilation and its real-world applications.
• Investigate: Explore why the speed of light is the maximum possible speed in our universe.

Quantum theory

• Explain how the double slit experiment provides evidence for the wave model of light.
• Describe light as an electromagnetic wave.
• Explain the concept of black-body radiation and the significance of the evidence it provides.
• Describe the photoelectric effect in terms of the photon.
• Describe the concepts of threshold frequency and work function.
• Solve problems involving blackbody radiation and the photoelectric effect using λ_max = b/T, E = hf = hc/λ, E_k = hf − W, W = hf_0.
• Compare the different models of the atom proposed by Rutherford and Bohr.
• Explain how Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom integrates light quanta and atomic energy states to explain the specific wavelengths in the hydrogen line spectrum.
• Solve problems involving the line spectra of simple atoms using atomic energy states or atomic energy level diagrams using nλ = 2πr, mvr = nh/2π, 1/λ = R(1/n_f² − 1/n_i²) and λ = h/p.
• Describe wave–particle duality of light by identifying evidence that supports the wave characteristics of light and evidence that supports the particle characteristics of light.
• Interpret data related to the photoelectric effect.

Science as a Human Endeavour (SHE)

• Appreciate the significant contributions of scientists such as Wilhelm Wien, Max Planck, Ernest Rutherford, Niels Bohr, Maria Goeppert-Mayer and Johannes Rydberg who furthered our understanding of quantum theory.
• Explore the historical development of the model of the atom in terms of traditional models.
• Consider how theories are contested, refined or replaced when new evidence challenges them, or when a new model or theory has greater explanatory power.
• Explore how the approximation of Earth as a black body can be used to predict climate patterns.

Science inquiry

• Investigate: Investigate variables related to the photoelectric effect such as photoelectron energy or velocity, electrical potential difference across the anode and cathode, wavelength or frequency of incident light, work functions of surfaces.

The Standard Model

• Describe the concepts of elementary particles and antiparticles.
• Identify the six types of quarks.
• Describe baryons and mesons.
• Identify the six types of leptons.
• Identify the four gauge bosons.
• Compare the strong nuclear, weak nuclear and electromagnetic forces in terms of the gauge bosons.
• Contrast the fundamental forces experienced by quarks and leptons.

Particle interactions

• Describe the concepts of lepton number and baryon number.
• Solve problems relating to the conservation of lepton number and baryon number in particle interactions using B = n_b − n_b̅, B = 1/3(n_q − n_q̅) and L = n_l − n_l̅.
• Describe electron/electron, electron/positron and neutron decay interactions using particle interaction diagrams.
• Describe how symmetry in particle interactions occurs to maintain the principles of conservation.

Science as a Human Endeavour (SHE)

• Appreciate the significant contributions of scientists such as Chien-Shiung Wu, Richard Feynman and Peter Higgs who furthered our understanding of particle physics and The Standard Model.
• Explore the history of particle physics models and theories through the development of particle accelerators and contributions from notable physicists.
• Appreciate that particle accelerators like the Australian Synchrotron and Large Hadron Collider are developed through multinational collaborations between science organisations and governments.
• Appreciate the contribution of Australian scientists to the discovery of the Higgs boson.
• Explore the evidence relating to the Standard Model that supports the Big Bang theory.

Science inquiry

• Investigate: Examine evidence supporting theories related to particle physics.